Appendices

APPENDIX A - Rainfall, Temperature and Cropping Calendar

TABLE 10: MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL AT SOME SELECTED STATIONS (in millimetres)

SOURCES: Columns 1 to 4: Herat, B. Passive Solar Energy in Bhutan. Column 5: FAO/IFAD Tashigang Mongar Development Project.

TABLE 11: MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT SELECTED STATIONS (degrees Celsius)

SOURCE: Acres International Ltd., vol. 1, Main Report, 1986.

Determinants of the cropping calendar

The monsoon is the determining factor of the summer crop calendar in terraced cultivation. The winter cropping calendar is determined by temperature differences, and both the length and severity of winter. The number of sunny days after the cutting of vegetation determines the cropping calendar in tsheri land. 1f it rains just before burning, it is postponed, resulting in delay for the whole calendar of operation.

Farmers are still using the same crop rotation that has evolved out of limited experience. No evidence exists that the farmers are making an effort for the development of crop rotation as a means of spreading labour, maintaining fertility, reducing the risk of buildup of specific crop pests and diseases, and reducing erosion hazards. Little, if any research/experimental work has been carried out to develop rotations that would achieve the above aims and make best use of the agro-ecological conditions in specific locations (Acres International, 1985). For example, paddy rice is grown universally throughout the country as a summer crop in almost all the valley cultivation irrespective of soil suitability. The usual winter crop is wheat. Recently potato cultivation has become popular. However, for various reasons, land remains fallow in most places in winter.

Yields and cropping intensities

Farming intensity ranges from a low of 110 percent in Pema Gatshel to 166 percent in Thimphu. Summer intensity is universally 100 percent in all districts and the winter intensity ranges between 10 percent and 66 percent. The regional and country means are as demonstrated in Table 14.

TABLE 12: YIELD OF MAJOR CROPS

SOURCE: Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, RGOB.

TABLE 13: YIELD OF MAJOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS

SOURCE: Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, RGOB.

TABLE 14: CROPPING INTENSITY BY REGION

SOURCE: Acres International, 1985, Agriculture and irrigation, Vol-5, page 3.38

KEY:

WESTERN REGION: Gasa, Haa, Paro, Samchi, Thimphu;

CENTRAL REGION: Bumthang, Chirang, Dagana, Gaylegphug, Shemgang, Tongsa and Wangdiphodrang;

EASTERN REGION: Lhuntsi, Mongar, Pema Gatshel, Samdrup Jongkhar and Tashigang.

Cropping intensity is high in four districts. These districts are Paro, Thimphu, Punakha and Wangdiphodrang. The reason for higher cropping intensity in these four districts is probably the availability of most intensive support services.

The cropping intensity in tsheri land is increasing due to the increasing popularity of potatoes. Traditionally, only one crop used to be grown in tsheri land, however there are a few villages where they grow two crops consecutively for two or three years.

APPENDIX B - Livestock Husbandry

There are several varieties of cattle in Bhutan, predominant amongst them is the sini cattle, a slow maturing animal of quite small size. Mithun cattle are raised to cross breed with sini to produce Jatsam (female) and Jatsa (male). Jatsams are more productive than sini varieties and adapt very well to hard conditions. Mithun bulls are in very high demand because of the adaptability of Jatsa and Jatsam to the local conditions.

Exotic breeds such as Jersey and Brown Swiss are being raised on government farms for breeding purposes. However, these breeds have not established their credibility among farmers due to delicate management needs in terms of feed supply and health care.

Yak represents a prized livestock in higher altitudes. They produce meat, milk and cheese - a principal source of food for upland people. They also provide manure, as well as wool, hair and hides for clothing. They are multipurpose livestock and are used as pack animals.

Sheep are raised mainly for wool, while goats are raised for meat mainly in southern Bhutan. Exotic breeds of sheep have been introduced into Bhutan and have proved to be more productive.

Raising pigs is growing in popularity in Bhutan. They are mainly raised for household meat consumption. Management is easy and requires very little investment, making this activity very popular among small farmers. Poultry also are raised for self-consumption. They do not add much to the farm income. It is difficult to buy poultry produce in rural areas. Eggs are imported from India for the urban sector.

Recent census results completed by the Department of Animal Husbandry (1990) give the following figures for the livestock population: 308 300 cattle, 33 000 yaks, 5 000 buffaloes, 44 000 sheep, 36 900 goats, 26 000 horses and donkeys, 59 000 pigs and 2 180 000 poultry.

As a result of the increased population in recent years, the animal population densities in pastures and grasslands in different parts of the country are estimated to be on the high side.

Pasture composition

Grazing land can be divided into four vegetation zones: subtropical zone, temperate zone, subalpine zone and an alpine zone.

Subtropical zone: in the drier region of this zone extensive grassland of Cymbopogon fluxuosus is found in association with Heteropogon contortus. Other grasses commonly found in the zone are Apluda mutica, Arundinelia nepalensis, Crysopogon spp., Cynodon spp., Panicum spp., Sten a spp., Themeda spp. and Sporobolus spp. This type of grassland can be found in and around Punakha, Wangdiphodrang and Tashigang. Productivity of pasture in this zone is not known. However, DAH's estimate on carrying capacity of animals in the 1985 Draft Pasture Policy reveals that productivity can be increased several times. For example, present carrying capacity can be increased by a factor of 10 by introducing better pasture management.

Due to periodic burning and heavy grazing, the condition of grassland in this zone has deteriorated. Many of the preferred forage species have been replaced by brush and weeds. Review of the stocking rate in districts predominantly located in the subtropical zone reveals that the rate is high and grasslands are heavily grazed.

Temperate zone: Grasslands in the temperate zone are in various stages of succession depending upon the grazing pressure from livestock. Much of the temperate zone, especially the drier areas, is dominated by Andropogon thristis associated with Arundinella hookerii and Eragrostis nigra. In some places Themeda spp., Helictrotrichon and Pennisetum spp. are found to be associated with Andropogon. Heavy grazing pressure has replaced natural Andropogon grassland by Arundinelia hookerii. This type of grassland is located in Bumthang, Thimphu, Gasa, Lhuntsi, etc.

It is reported that dry matter production for temperate pastures can range between 2 400 and 2 800 kg/ha. Productivity can be increased to 10 times current productivity from 4 ha/Lu to 0.4 halLu. Over-use of grassland is a serious problem in many grassland areas near the villages and around migratory trails. The upper temperate areas are subject to heavy grazing pressure from cattle during summer and yak in winter. Surprisingly large areas of temperate grasslands are still in very good condition throughout the country (MPW, 1986).

Subalpine zone: Depending upon aspect, altitude and grazing pressure, the following main grass species are found in this zone: agrostis spp, aeropyron spp, bromus spp, danthonia spp, festuca spp, poa spp, stip a spp, etc. This type of grassland occurs throughout the northern belt of Bhutan and mainly in Bumthang, Gasa, Mera and Sakten in Tashigang districts, Laya in Gasa district, and Lhuntshi. Roder (1982) estimated dry matter yield for native grasslands at 2 600 m to be 800 kg/ha. Much of the grassland in the subalpine zone is still in good condition. However, in places there are degraded grasslands owing to periodic burning by herders and excessive use for grazing by cattle in summer and yak in winter.

Alpine zone: The grasses found in the alpine zone are almost the same as in the subalpine zone. Higher up sedges and fords become more dominant. Festula ovina is an important grass in the alpine zone. Its occurrence is found in Paro, Gasa, Bumthang and Lhuntsi. It is estimated that the production of grass in the alpine zone has a dry matter yield of about 13 kg/ha (Roder, 1982). Carrying capacity can be increased five times, from 10 ha/Lu to 2 ha/Lu by improving the pasture. In general, alpine grasslands are in good condition, though there are overgrazed pockets. Yak herds and flocks of sheep utilize this zone in the summer months.

APPENDIX C - Forest Productivity and Sustained Yield Estimates

TABLE 15: FOREST COVER DISTRIBUTION IN BHUTAN

Source: Negi 1983

¹ Area rounded off to nearest square km.

² Insignificant Area amounting to 0.7% of total land area.

Production and productivity

According to the forest resource inventory of 1974/79, the estimated resources and sustained yields are as follows:

TABLE 16: GROWING STOCK AND YIELD

SOURCE: RGOB, Pre-Investment Study of Bhutan's Forest Resource, 1980.

The information provided in Table 16 reveals that net annual allowable cut is almost 14m3. The present annual harvest is only 200 000 m3, which is 70 times lower than what can be harvested annually.

APPENDIX D - The Calendar of Activities for Shifting Cultivation

TABLE 17: ACTIVITY CALENDAR FOR SHIFTING CULTIVATORS

KEY: M: Men, W: Women, C: Children, B: Both men and women, A: All

APPENDIX E - Woody Legumes for Trial on Long-fallow Land

The knowledge on appropriate woody legumes for introduction in fallow tsheri is poor. The following woody legumes are recommended for trial:

TABLE 17: LIST OF WOODY LEGUMES FOR POSSIBLE TRIAL