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SOURCES AND FURTHER READING

The inspiration behind the ideas and concepts underlying Participatory Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation (PAME) have come from many different sources. People working in the field have willingly and enthusiastically contributed their experiences and ideas. The literature that is available on overall development strategies, such as Chambers (1983) and Friere (1973) was used to develop the PAME concept. The work of those who write on the subject of monitoring and evaluation, such as Feuerstein (1986), Oakley and Marsden (1984) and Stephens (1988) has been important to developing PAME. And the contributions of field experiences from the newsletters and publications of NGOs have been especially useful. The contributions from all these sources are recognized and appreciated, their ideas have been interpreted and adapted.

This section consists of an annotated bibliography and references of reports, studies, newsletters, and books on methodologies of participation and information gathering. The list is not exhaustive, but includes all the sources that were available at the time of writing.

9. ANNNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adelman, C.; Alexander, R.J.

1982

The Self-Evaluating Institution: Practice and Principles in the Management of Educational Change. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, England.

This book assumes that educational institutions, to be consistent with the goals they profess and to achieve progress, have procedures for subjecting their practices and ideas to open and collective appraisal. This publication may be useful in assisting agencies to develop a participatory evaluation process.

 

Barndt, D.

1980

Education and Social Change: A Photographic Study in Peru. Participatory Research Project of the International Council for Adult Education, Toronto, Canada.

This book explores the dynamics of an awareness process, the development of a critical social consciousness through choosing and assembling images. Drawing on the work of Paulo Friere, this book focuses on the stories of four women in a literacy programme in Peru. Photographs are used to provoke strong discussion and analysis, and two-way communication. They provide historical documentation of a community event, serve as publicity tools, as reflective devices, and records of social progress.

 

Byron, N.

1988

Learning from Farmers About Their Trees (Draft). FAO, Cowumuiity Forestry Unit, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy.

This study argues that the way projects generally view farmers is not useful. It suggests a more farmer-oriented approach, which looks at farmers' productive capacities.

 

Bhasin, K.

1976

Participatory Training for Development. Report of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign, Action for Development. Regional Change Agents Programme. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, (RAPA) Bangkok, Thailand.

 

Bhasin, K.

1979

Breaking Barriers: A South Asian Experience of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign, Action for Development. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, (RADA) Bangkok, Thailand. (March-May, 1978).

The two publications by Bhasin are excellent descriptions of the methods and results of training programmes in participatory methods for extensionists.

 

Brown, C.K.

1986

Report of the People's Participation Project (Ghana) Workshop on Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation. FAO, Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division, ESH, Rome, Italy.

Report from a workshop to develop PME systems for Ghana. They envision instrumental participation and focus their discussion on the way outsiders monitor and evaluate participation.

 

Bruce, J.

1989

Rapid Appraisal of Tree and Land Tenure for the Design of Community Forestry Initiatives. (in Press). FAO, Community Forestry Unit, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy.

This excellent study explores the use of RRA techniques to understand land and tree tenure issues. It devotes specific attention to relevant issues related to gender and socio-economic status, common lands and pastoralists. The author argues that tenure problems result ultimately because projects are not properly designed to account for tenure. The author feels that RRA may not be the best method for understanding tenure, though practical advice regarding the way to carry out a field study on the subject is explored.

 

Campbell, G.; Davis-Case, D.J.

Notes on a Framework for Approaching 1987 Participation and Information Exchange. Presentation at the Forests, Trees and People Seminar in Uppsala, Sweden (September).

Explores the necessity for participatory monitoring and evaluation. Provides some guidelines. Focuses on participatory baselines, and advocates development of tools and methods for monitoring and evaluation.

 

Caye, D.

1977

A Single Entry Book-keeping System for Small scale manufacturing Businesses. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Mt. Ranier, USA.

An easy to use manual of simple record-keeping that would be useful for projects involved in small-scale forest based enterprises.

 

Chambers, R.

1983

Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Longman, London, England.

This excellent book deals (in Chapter Three) with the problems of nformation gathering and advocates information systems which shift initiative to the local people as partners in learning. It advocates on approach which enables them to use and augment their own skills, knowledge and power. It calls for information gathering methods and tools which are eclectic, inventive, adaptable and open to unexpected information, allowing timely analysis and reporting.

 

Chambers, R.

1986

Shortcut Methods in Social Information Gathering for Rural Development Projects. In Rapid Rural Appraisal. Rhon Kaen University, Bangkok, Thailand.

 

Chege, G.G.

1988

Participatory Assessment of Participation. Presentation at AFNE P Regional Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

The author of this paper argues for insider controlled projects. To determine the extent to which different parties control the project three indicators are suggested: who decided; how broadly popular the decisions are; and who was. consulted before the decision was made. His analysis uses the participation continuum for field staff and proposes development of this tool for the community.

 

Cohen, J.; Uphoff, N.T.

1977

Rural Development Participation: Concepts and Measures for Project Design, Implementation and Evaluation. Rural Development Committee, Centre for International Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA.

 

Davis-Case, D.J.

1986

Sharing the Information: A Proposal for Collaboration in Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (Draft). FAO, Community Forestry Unit, Rome, Italy.

 

Davis-Case, D.J.

1987

Case Studies of the Monitoring and Evaluation Practices of two NGOs (Village Reconstruction Organization, and Mindanao Rural Life Centre) (Draft). FAO, Forestry Department, Community Forestry Unit, Rome, Italy.

The ME systems of two NGOs (one in India, one in the Philippines) that practice participatory development are explored, and elements of the participatory approach to monitoring and evaluation are found in both cases.

 

Davis-Case, D.J.

1988

Factors to Consider When Deciding on Appropriate Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation Tools. Presentation at AFT Regional Workshop, Rimusu, Kenya (May).

A participatory monitoring and evaluation system is viewed as a blend of outsider and insider information needs (each with their own methods and tools) and negotiation with local people to satisfy both information users. Though the tools and methods of information gathering/analysis are participatory, the overall framework lacks a community focus.

 

Dudley, M.J.

1989

Presentation at FAO/SIDA Forests, Trees and People Expert Consultation, Rome, Italy (March).

 

Economic Development Institute.

1986

Readings in Community Participation: Community Participation Experience in Multi-sectoral Programmes and in Population, Health and Water Supply. Economic Development Institute, London, England.

This report introduces guidelines for training in participatory methods. It advocates good clear communication at all levels; information collection on gender issues; development of participatory methods and tools; and clear social analysis. A distinction is drawn between participation for empowerment (transformational) and participation for efficiency (instrumental).

 

Falconer, J.

1987

Forestry Extension: A Review of the Key Issues. Overseas Development Institute. Social Forestry Network Paper 4E (June).

This article argues for a bottom-up participatory extension approach in community forestry. The approach is characterized by: participation of local users in early stages of planning and development, extension agent's role as a facilitator rather than a teacher, and a two-way information flow. Explores some reasons why the top-down approach is still the dominant model, noting that established power hierarchies, a lack of participatory training resources, and poor support are all factors.

 

FAO

1986

Visual Aids and Villagers in Nepal and Rwanda. In Gurgen, R. and Simenyimana, B. FFHC/AFD. Vol. 197:1986:5. FAO, Rome, Italy.

 

FAO

1986

Report on the Use of Theatre, Puppets, Mime, Story-telling as a Forestry Extension Tool. Field Document No. 20. Government of the Republic of Sudan (GCP/033/SUD/NET) to FAO, Rome, Italy.

Report from a three-week workshop with forestry extension staff in Sudan. Gives plots of the stories that were developed. The document also examines some more practical aspects such as how to build puppets and theatre from local materials.

 

FAO

1986

Small Farmers Development Programme. FAA Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, FAD, Bangkok, Thailand.

This is one of many publications by the SDP focused on training of extensionists in two-way communications.

 

FAO

1987

Permanent Self-Evaluation: The Latin American Experience. In Ossandon, C.J. Ideas in Action FFHC/AFD. Vor165:1987/3. FAD, Rome, Italy.

A short but excellent article on why local people must evaluate their own progress. The article argues that the self-evaluation process must be educational, participatory and permanent. The article advocates an ongoing process of critical reflection by the external agency and the community.

 

Feuerstein, M.

1986

Partners in Evaluation: Evaluating Development and Coamunity Programmes with Partici pants. Teaching Aids at Low Cost, St. Albans,UK.

A training manual directed towards health care workers which contains many good, practical ideas for the collection of ME information by local people.

 

Fisher, R.J.; Singh, H.; Pandey, D.; Lang, H.

1989

The Management of Forest Resources in Rural Development. Report prepared on a Joint NAFP/ICIMOD Study, Kathmandu, Nepal (February).

 

Fortmann, L.

1988

The Tree Tenure Factor in Agroforestry with Particular Reference to Africa. In Fortmann, L. and Bruce, J. (Eds.) Whose Trees? Proprietary Dimensions of Forestry. Westview Press, Boulder, USA.

 

Fowler, A.

1988

Evaluating Development Interventions: Towards Community-Based Comparative Evaluation (CBEC). Presentation at the AFNW Regional Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

This paper describes projects as intervention into the lives of local people rather than as an outsider project in which they participate. He proposes that the values of the community should provide indicators for ME and a CBEC using the communities own measurements and methods. The community provide the information, and outsiders do the analysis, draw conclusions and make comparisons.

 

French, D.

1984

Monitoring Across the Grain. In Monitoring and Evaluation of Participatory Forestry Projects. FAO Forestry Paper No.60. FAO, Rome, Italy.

In this report, the author relates experiences in Malawi. Monitoring, instead of focusing on project target objectives, reveals whether project objectives are responsive to the needs of the people. The author argues that until it is known that project objectives address real local needs, monitoring of targets is not useful.

 

Friere, P.

1973

Research Methods. In Studies in Adult Education. Institute of Adult Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

A well-known advocate of grass roots movements, Friere states that participatory ME is directed at the poor and weak. The author argues that participatory monitoring and evaluation is preferable to traditional ME because it expresses the opinions of participants.

 

Gianotten, V.

1986

Methodological Notes for Evaluation: Experiences and Results. Freedom From Hunger Campaign Action for Development, FAO, Rome, Italy.

This report presents an excellent (participation as transformational) theoretical rationale for participatory methodologies, but does not deal with experience or practical methods.

 

Heermans, J.

1987

The Guesselbodi Experiment: Bushland Manage went in Niger. Presentation to LIED Conference on Sustainable Development, London, England (April).

The author states that experience shows that people will not actively participate in management programmes until ownership, control and land tenure questions are resolved.

 

Horseman, J.; MacPherson, D.

1985

Summary of the World Literacy of Canada, Evaluation Process and Major Recommendations. The Participatory Research Group, Toronto, Canada (November).

This report describes a participatory evaluation exercise with the staff of a large NGO. The evaluation was done with beneficiaries of the programme, the programme management, teaching staff and board of directors. The author used primarily interviews and reflective discussions to gather information.

 

Hoskins, M.

1982

Social Forestry in West Africa: Myths and Realities. Paper presented at American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.

The author states that the information which is collected does not assure that rational decisions are made when other factors such as economic and political imperatives are involved in this analysis of social forestry.

 

Hoskins, M.

1986

Participatory Action Research Information Gathering methods (draft). The East-West Centre, Hawaii, USA.

The author argues convincingly that if local people are involved in identifying research needs, a more realistic research agenda will result.

 

Hoskins, M.

1986

Thoughts on Communication Techniques for Information Gathering and Reporting, (draft). FAO, Rome, Italy.

 

Huizer, G.

1983

Guiding Principles for People's Participation Projects: Design, Operation, Monitoring and Ongoing Evaluation. People's Participation Project (PPP), FAD, Rome, Italy.

 

Hyman, E.L.

1985

Monitoring and Evaluation of Forestry Projects for Local Community Development. In Agriculture Administration. 19(3):139-166 Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, England.

This paper points out some of the problems in evaluating the qualitative and quantitative factors in social forestry. The author suggests that local people be asked for their input regarding the social impacts.

 

Hyman, E.L.

1983

Sources of Information for Monitoring and Evaluation (draft). FAO, Rome, Italy.

Although this piece does not focus on participatory methods, the author points out some possible sources for collection of secondary data, some sampling methods, and some of the problems of bias that may result from participatory methods. Focuses mainly on surveys and interviews as ME methods.

 

ILEIA

1988

Participatory Technology Development in Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings of the Information Centre for Low External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture Leusden, Holland (April).

An excellent set of proceedings, which defines participation as transformational, focusing on farmer use (end-user) of technology. Underlines the lack of methodological development in the current approach to participation, and recommends development in this area.

 

Ingles, A.W.

1988

The Information Needed to Implement Community Forest Management. In Directions for Community Forest Management in Nepal. Pokhara, Nepal (September).

This article deals with the information required to negotiate forest management plans with local people. While information will also be needed by local people, this publication does provide a good base resource. It advocates acquisition of both natural resource and social information.

 

Jabine, T.B.; Straf, M. L.

1984

Cognitive Aspects of Survey Methodology: Building a Bridge Between Disciplines. National Academy Press, Washington D.C., USA.

A rather academic presentation that points out many of the perceptual twists inherent in the collection of qualitative information.

 

Jones, H.

1986

Project Appraisal and Evaluation. A Review of Current Practice. Reading Rural Development Communications: Bulletin No. 14. University of Reading, UK, Agriculture Extension and Rural Development Centre.

This paper provides a critique of RRA and participatory monitoring and evaluation, and argues that although they may be fast and cost effective, the disadvantages will be: difficulty for users (outsiders) to estimate the degree of confidence that can be placed upon the results; increased difficulty in judging the quality of an investigators work due to a lack of standardization; and difficulty in persuading decision-makers that the conclusions resulting from these procedures have the same credibility as those emerging from more formal, statistical evaluations.

 

Joseph, S.

1989

Monitoring and Evaluation of Cookstove Programmes: A Summary (draft). FAO, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy.

A very comprehensive manual on the kinds of questions that need to be answered in evaluating stove programmes. A number of data gathering methods for stove programmes are proposed.

 

Kabutha, C.

1988

Using Rapid Rural Appraisal to Formulate a Village Resources Management Plan. Interim Report. National Environment Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya (August).

This is a description of the positive experimental experiences using RRA techniques to undertake a participatory planning exercise. Members of local community groups were included in the RRA team. There was no specific sector orientation (forestry, water, agriculture). All resource problems were identified, and priorities and solutions were incorporated in the management plan.

 

Kenyon, J.; Warnock, B.

When a Community Defines Its Situation. In Village Resources Management Plan. International Report. Environment Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya (August).

Includes excellent descriptions of participatory planning exercises, focusing on the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of participation.

Kruks, S.

1983

Notes on the Concept and Practice of Participation in the Kenya Woodfuel Development Programme (with special emphasis on rural women). Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.

This paper looks at the "instrumental" and "transformational" paradigms of participation vis-a-vis one particular project. It explores the paradox inherent in project objectives which focus on targets of more fuelwood, more stoves and fast results (where the instrumental/ means concept of participation will be most appropriate) and self-help (where the transformational/ends concept of participation would be advocated). It was found on examining the particular project that the targets conflicted with the objective of self-help. The instrumental definition of participation was adopted; and the objective of self-help was therefore made unattainable.

 

Lewis, D.A.

1981

Social Implications for Implementing Fuelwood Projects: Lessons from Experience. Presentation at Workshop on Environmentally Sustainable Agroforestry and Fuelwood Production, London, England.

Two case studies revealed that the necessary elements for participation were: simple technologies, small-scale application, flexibility, low resource requirements, a large degree of felt needs being met, extensive short-term benefits, administrative simplicity, staff availability, cultural acceptance of participation, a history of communal efforts, and a political climate favourable to participation.

 

Mbuende, Kaire

1988

Notes on Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (draft). Development Study Unit, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden.

This study explores the failures of development within three paradigms: modernization, dependency, and modes of production. The author, based on the analysis, justifies the participatory approach, with special reference to monitoring and evaluation.

 

Molnar, A.

1988

RRA and the Participatory Planning methods for Land-Based Natural Resource Management Projects (draft). World Bank and FAO, Rome, Italy.

This study explores ways of using RRA techniques to incorporate local people in the planning process. The foci should be on: key issues (rather than random data gathering), interdisciplinary teams, learning experience for outsiders, and correction of possible bias. Recommends field visits, interviews, and the use of key informants.

 

Morse, R.; Tingsabadh, C.; Vergara, N.; Vidyarthi, V.

1987

People's Institutions for Forest and Fuelwood Evaluations in India and Thailand, East-West Centre, Resource Systems Institute, Hawaii, USA.

This report defines participation as "evaluation from the vie ··int of the people, in light of their needs and problems"-Time meth..s used are somewhat traditional: surveys, participant observation, individual and collective discussions.

 

Oakley, P.; Marsden, D.

1984

Approaches to Participation in Rural Development. International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (91 pp.).

This paper defines participation as political empowerment, and states that integration of participatory monitoring and evaluation techniques is a "formidable task".

 

Oakley, P.

1988

Participation in Evaluation. In Community Development Journal, 23(1):1-58, Special Issue.

 

Participatory Research Group.

1981

Drawing from Action for Action: Drawing and Discussion as a Popular Research Tool (Pamphlet). Participatory Research Group, Toronto, Canada.

A short, but very well written pamphlet which discusses the use of drawing to "release" information and focus discussions.

 

Patton, M.Q.

1987

How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. Sage Publications, London, England.

This book is written from the viewpoint of outside evaluators, and proposes: (1) in-depth, open-ended interviews consisting of recording of direct quotes from people about their experiences, opinions, feelings and knowledge; (2) direct observation with detailed descriptions of programme activities; and (3) written documents.

 

Paul, S.

1986

Cammunity Participation in Development Pro jects: The World Bank Experience (draft). The World Bank, Washington D.C., USA.

This book is written from the viewpoint of outside evaluators, and proposes: (1) in-depth, open-ended interviews consisting of recording of direct quotes from people about their experiences, opinions, feelings and knowledge; (2) direct observation with detailed descriptions of programme activities; and (3) written documents.

 

Pietro, D.S. (Ed.)

1983

Evaluation Sourcebook for Private and Voluntary Organizations. American Council for Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, New York, USA.

An excellent resource book for monitoring and evaluation which uses a project phase approach (evaluation clock), relates experiences and describes some information gathering tools. The recommended approach advocates involvement of communities with outsiders guiding the process. Focuses only on evaluation.

 

Pretty, J.N.; Craig, I.;

Chouangohan, P.

Preference Ranking (Handbook 11). Northeast Rainfed Agricultural Development Project, Bangkok, Thailand.

This is one of a series of handbooks for field workers. It describes the project, the methods used and provides a number of examples. Although participation is not emphasized, adaptation is possible.

 

Rahman, A.

1984

Participation of the Rural Poor in Development: Approach and Experience in the ILO Effort. International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

The author believes that people's own research stimulates selfmobilization. The intervenor (or facilitator) has a sensitive role, "animating" without controlling or directing.

 

Rahman, A.

1984

Grassroots Participation and Self-Reliance. Oxford & IBH Press, New Delhi, India.

Raintree, J.

1988

Factors to Consider in Developing an Information System for Agroforestry Extension Projects. Paper presented at AmP Regional Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

 

Rocheleau, D.J.

1986

The User Perspective and Agroforestry Research and Action Agenda. In Henry Golz (Ed.). Agroforestry. Martinus Nijhoff and Junk, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Gives the reasons for adoption of a user-perspective. Supplies the rationale for a participatory approach in the development of research questions.

 

Rocheleau, D.

1988

Landscape and Place in Agroforestry Planning and Evaluation: Using Maps, Pictures, Memories and Projections. Presentation at AF190P Regional Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

The author suggests that periodic use of a mapping series and field visits to monitor progress (and provide an ongoing baseline) throughout the project provides "conversation pieces" for project field staff and beneficiaries. It enables them to understand dynamic land use and trees placement strategies guidelines and key questions to use in developing these techniques are provided as well. This paper seems to attempt to improve education/evaluation by field workers.

 

Rugh, J.

1985

Self Evaluation: Ideas for Participatory Evaluation of Rural Development Community Projects. World Neighbours, Oklahoma City, USA.

A good field level handbook with some ideas on participatory evaluation.

 

Rudquist, A.

1988

Consultations as a means of Promoting Popular Participation. Development Studies Unit. Popular Participation Programme. Working Paper No. 2. University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden.

The author advocates participation of local people at all stages but especially in agency planning and preparation.

 

Sandford, D.

1989

A Note on the Use of Aerial Photography for Land Use Planning in a Settlement Site in Ethiopia. In Rapid Rural Appraisal Notes, No. 6. The International Institute for Environment and Development, London, England (June).

 

Scheuermeir, V.

1989

Visualized Group Discussions with Impromptu Cartoons. In Rapid Rural Appraisal Notes, No. 6. The International Institute for Environment and Development, London, England (June).

 

SIDA

1984

Village Nurseries for Forest Trees: How to Set Them Up and How to Run Them. Published by Swedish International Development Agency (SIM), Stockholm, Sweden.

This booklet gives examples of basic nursery registry and recording techniques.

 

Smith, N.

1982

Field Assessment of Innovative Evaluation Methods. Jossey-Bass, London, England.

 

Soetoro, A.

1979

Prosperity Indicators for Java. Development Alternatives Inc., Washington D.C., USA.

The author describes prosperity indicators in rural Java. These focus on house exterior, interior, transportation, entertainment, and refreshments served to visitors.

 

Speich, A.

1988

Pakistan Social Forestry: A Socio-Ecological Contribution to the Pakistan-German Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Mardan District. Consultants Report. IU N, Gland, Switzerland.

This report details an attempt to integrate social forestry which is community based. Proposes village monographs as a major planning tool.

 

Steele, S.

1981

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in Programme Evaluation, DRAFT. North Carolina State University, USA (July).

Some of the problems posed by qualitative and quantitative data are examines in relationship to different paradigms (world views). The author argues that the distinction between the two paradigms is verification (quantitative) versus discovery (qualitative). Both approaches are valid, the author argues, but the differences must be understood.

 

Stephens, A.

1988

Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: Handbook for Field Workers. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, (RADA), Bangkok, Thailand.

A very useful handbook for training field workers in participatory monitoring and evaluation. Gives the rationale for the participatory approach, and some tips on communication of results.

 

Tahir, I.

1988

Kordofan Agroforestry Extension Project. CARE. Paper presented at AFM P Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

Details field staff experiences in making questionnaires to check villagers perception of extension and (appropriateness of messages) one year after activities had begun. In trying to make the questionnaires more participatory, the results were tabulated and interpreted at a meeting with staff and villagers, and then discussed in a larger meeting.

 

Tilakaratna, S.

1988

The Animator in Participatory Rural Development (Concepts and Practice), DRAFT. Rural Employment Policies Branch, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

The author cites many examples of the "spirit of self-reliance" that can be released through participatory development. Most of the examples are from grass roots movements in India. This manual is focused on the training (or sensibilization) of extensionists.

 

Thomson, J.T.

1984

Agroforestry and Natural Forest Management: Possibilities and Conditions for Increasing Popular Participation. In Report of the Workshop on Forestry Programme Evaluation. USAID, Washington D.C., USA (August).

The author cites the many (technical, economic, legal, and/or political) constraints to participation. Guidelines are offered: do more of what people are already doing themselves; start small, exploiting the easiest gains first; and work from existing tree management models to more complicated models.

 

Umali, D.L.

1988

People's Power and Upland Conservation. Key note Speech delivered at Workshop on People's Participation in Upland Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand (November).

This speech gives an evocative definition of (transformational) participation and calling participatory evaluation a necessary step in the development process.

 

United Nations

1984

Guiding Principles for the Design and use of Monitoring and Evaluation in Rural Development Projects and Programmes. UN ACC Task Force on Rural Developmentt, Panel on Monitoring and Evaluation, Rome, Italy (December).

This publication presents the traditional monitoring and evaluation perspective. It gives definitions and concepts, and indicates how impacts and effects can be measured. The methods that are proposed are basically surveys and participant observation.

 

Uphoff, N.

1987

Participatory Evaluation of Participatory Development: A Scheme for Measuring. and Monitoring Local Capacity Being Introduced in Sri Lanka. Paper prepared for PPP workshop (Ghana) on Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation. FAO, Rome, Italy.

The author argues that participation of local people in an evaluation that is planned and controlled by outsiders, or one tit is intended, basically, to meet outsider needs, does not qualify as meaningfully participatory. He proposes a "value" system for farmers.

 

VITA

1983

Guidelines for Planning. Volunteers for

Technical Assistance, Arlington, USA.

This paper, one of many published for field staff from VITA, gives a description of the forestry step plan developed by VITA in Somalia. The participants are all wage earners (or food for work), but the plan purports to have enhanced quality and interest in refugee camps where there is no long-term committment to the land, and where there is high unemployment.

 

Warnock, B.

1984

When a Community Decides. In Together. World Vision (July -September), Los Angeles, USA.

This article describes grass-roots initiatives and experiences in community problem analysis and planning for development.

 

Weber, F.

1988

Notes on Survival. Presentation the AFZ+EMP Regional Workshop, Kimusu, Kenya (May).

The author, on the basis of many years of experience in community forestry and indigenous and non-traditional forestry techniques, gives some ideas on why and how to collect better data on survival of planted stock.

 

Weber, F.

1986

Reforestation in Arid Lands. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, USA.

A section of this book gives the reasons for, and factors limiting survival of planted stock.

 

Windey, M.A.

1974

Do Villages Have a Future? Village Recontruction Organization (Pamphlet), Hyderabad, India.

This is one of a series of many pamphlets published by the Village Reconstruction Organization (VRO) that has been working in participatory development since 1965. This pamphlet deals with the philosophy of participation and the positive effects of this development concept on VRO projects.

 

 


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